Sports

The Theory

Basic SDT research topics

Chu, T. L.Koppenhaver, P. (2025) One size doesn’t fit all: Gender differences in strategies for satisfying psychological needs through youth sport. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 96(2) ,48-53

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Mossman, L. H., Slemp, G.Lewis, K. J.Colla, R. H. (2024) Autonomy support in sport and exercise settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1 ,540-563

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Morbée, S., Haerens, L., Soenens, B.Thys, J. (2024) Coaching dynamics in elite volleyball: The role of a need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching style during competitive games. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 73 ,102655

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Chu, T. L.Treacy, A.Moore, W. G.Petrie, T. A. (2024) Intersectionality matters: Gender, race/ethnicity, and sport level differentiate perceived coach-created motivational climates and psychological needs. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 13(1) ,59-75

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Pereira, P.Santos, F.Marinho, D. A. (2024) Validation of the Sport Motivation Scale-II: Implications for the Portuguese youth sport system. SAGE Open, 14(1)

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Jordan, N.Macdonald, S.Allen, J. (2024) Military sports recovery athletes’ perspectives on role of the coach in athletes’ well-being: The importance of supporting basic psychological needs. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Advance online publication

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Bengtsson, D.Stenling, A.Nygren, J., Ntoumanis, N. (2024) A cluster-randomized controlled trial to increase youth ice hockey coaches’ beliefs and use of need-supportive styles. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 13(4) ,355-371

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Behzadnia, B.Fazeli, H.Rezaei, F.Moazam, S. (2024) The relationship between motivational regulations and intention to continue sport in injured athletes. Journal of Motor Control and Learning, 6(2) ,e144545

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Langdon, J. L.Van Arkel, J.Greene, K. (2023) Exploring virtual coach education in USA Lacrosse. International Journal of Sport Coaching, 10(3) ,399-409

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Benish, D., Langdon, J. L.Culp, B. (2023) Previous experiences of novice coaches and their coach-created motivational climate: a collective case study. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 28(5) ,482-502

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Shannon, S.Brick, N.Prentice, G.Breslin, G. (2023) The influence of athletes’ psychological needs on motivation, burnout and well-being: a test of self-determination theory. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 17(4) ,409–428

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Schemenauer, S., Chu, T. L. (2023) Lessons from the field. Development of a group intervention to promote need-supportive sport parenting. Family Relations, 72 ,1326-1334

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Lemelin, E.Kil, H.Petit, E., Carpentier, J. (2023) How to support athlete autonomy in university sports: Coaches’ experience of the reROOT Program. The Sport Psychologist, 37(4) ,253–265

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Morbée, S.Waterschoot, J.De Muynck, G-J., Haerens, L. (2023) Identifying profiles of parental (de)motivating behaviors in youth sports: A multi-informant approach. Motivation and Emotion, 47 ,990-1006

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De Clerck, T., Haerens, L.Van Dyck, D.Devos, G. (2023) Professionalizing all-volunteer nonprofit organizations: An intervention study based on the competing values framework and self-determination theory. , Journal of Organizational Change Management , 37(1) (pp. 39-57) doi: 10.1108/JOCM-01-2023-0028

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Lemelin, E., Carpentier, J.Gadoury, S.Petit, E. (2023) The reROOT coaching program: A pilot randomized controlled trial evaluating its impact on coaching style and athlete sports development. , International Sport Coaching Journal , 11(3) (pp. 379–392) doi: 10.1123/iscj.2022-0099

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Inguglia, C.Ingoglia, S.Leale, I.Iannello, N. M. (2023) Psychological antecedents of Italian sport coaches’ coaching behaviors: The role of basic psychological needs, motivation and subjective vitality. Healthcare, 11 ,2797

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Madsen, E. E.Krustrup, P.Hansen, T.Aggestrup, C. S. (2023) Motivational predictors of children’s involvement in out-of-school activities: An application of a football program. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 33 ,72–83

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Beauchamp, M. R.Kingstone, A., Ntoumanis, N. (2023) The Psychology of Athletic Endeavor. Annual Review of Psychology, 74 ,597-624

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Morbée, S., Haerens, L.Waterschoot, J., Vansteenkiste, M. (2022) Which cyclists manage to cope with the corona crisis in a resilient way? The role of motivational profiles. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20(4) ,1049-1067

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Lemelin, E.Verner-Filion, J., Carpentier, J.Carbonneau, N. (2022) Autonomy support in sport contexts: The role of parents and coaches in the promotion of athlete well-being and performance. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 11(3) ,305-319

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Shannon, S.Prentice, G.Brick, N.Leavey, G. (2022) Longitudinal associations between athletes’ psychological needs and burnout across a competitive season: A latent difference scores analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 44(4) ,240–250

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Back, J.Stenling, A.Solstad, B. E.Svedberg, P. (2022) Psychosocial predictors of drop-out from organised sport: A prospective study in adolescent soccer. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 ,16585

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Ntoumanis, N.E. QuestedL. PattersonS. Kaffe (2021) An intervention to optimise coach-created motivational climates and reduce athlete willingness to dope (CoachMADE): a three-country cluster randomised controlled trial. , British Journal of Sports Medicine , 55 (pp. 213-219) doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-101963

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Benish, D., Langdon, J. L. (2021) Examination of novice coaches’ previous experience as athletes: Examples of autonomy support and controlling behaviors as influences on future coaching practice. International Sport Coaching Journal, Ahead of Print ,1–14

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Chu, T. L.Zhang, X.Lee, J.Zhang, T. (2021) Perceived coach-created environment directly predicts high school athletes’ physical activity during sport. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 16(1) ,70-80

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Shannon, S.Prentice, G.Breslin, G. (2021) Athletes’ psychological needs and coaches’ interpersonal behaviors: A within-person latent profile analysis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 43(1) ,71-82

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Rodrigues, F., Pelletier, L. G.Rocchi, M.Cid, L. (2021) Adaptation and validation of a Portuguese version of the Sports Motivation Scale-II (SMS-II-P) showing invariance for gender and sport type. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 128(6) ,2669-2687

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Daniels, R.Cormier, J.Gore, J.McMahan, E. (2021) The impact of need satisfaction on college athlete burnout. The Sport Journal, 22

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Ahrens, A. D., Chu, T. L. (2021) Motivation Is Not Always Black and White: Attending to African American Athletes’ Psychological Needs for Sport Involvement. A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators, 34(2) ,9-12

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Smohai, M.Szemes, A.Bernhardt-Torma, B.Mirnics, Z. (2021) Psychometric properties of the Hungarian adaptation of the Sport Motivation Scale II. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 21 ,2209-2218

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Rodrigues, F., Pelletier, L. G.Rocchi, M.Cid, L. (2021) Adaptation and validation of a Portuguese version of the Sports Motivation Scale-II (SMS-II-P) showing invariance for gender and sport type. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 128(6) ,2669–2687

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Bhavsar, N.Bartholomew, K. J.Quested, E.Gucciardi, D. F. (2020) Measuring psychological need states in sport: Theoretical considerations and a new measure. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 47 ,101617

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Kwasnicka, D., Ntoumanis, N.Hunt, K.Gray, C. M. (2020) A gender-sensitised weight-loss and healthy living program for men with overweight and obesity in Australian Football League settings (Aussie-FIT): A pilot randomised controlled trial. , PLoS Medicine , 17(8) (pp. e1003136) doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003136

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Matosic, D., Ntoumanis, N.Boardly, I. D.Sedikides, C. (2020) Narcissism, beliefs about controlling interpersonal style, and moral disengagement in sport coaches. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18:5 ,592-606

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Healy, L. C., Ntoumanis, N.Arthur, C. A. (2020) Goal motives and well-being in student-athletes: A person-centered approach. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 42(6) ,433-442

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Standage, M., Ryan, R. M. (2020) Self-determination theory in sport and exercise. In In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology. , Handbook of sport psychology , Vol. 1 (pp. 37-56) Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi: 10.1002/9781119568124.ch3

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Sommerfield, B., Chu, T. L. (2020) Coaches can utilize parents to optimize youth athletes’ sport experience. Strategies, 33(2) ,25-31

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Shannon, S.Hanna, D.Leavey, G.Haughey, T. (2020) The association between mindfulness and mental health outcomes in athletes: testing the mediating role of autonomy satisfaction as a core psychological need. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,

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Holding, A. C.Fortin, J-A., Carpentier, J.Hope, N. (2020) Letting go of gold: Examining the role of autonomy in elite athletes’ disengagement from their athletic careers and well-being in retirement. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 14(1) ,88–108

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Standage, M.Curran, T.Rouse, P.C. (2019) In T.S. Horn & A.L. Smith, Self-determination-based theories of sport, exercise, and physical activity motivation. , Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology (pp. 289-311) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Bhavsar, N., Ntoumanis, N.Quested, E.Gucciardi, D. F. (2019) Conceptualizing and testing a new tripartite measure of coach interpersonal behaviors. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 44 ,107-120

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Chu, T. L.Zhang, T. (2019) The roles of coaches, peers, and parents in athletes’ basic psychological needs: A mixed-studies review. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(4) ,569–588

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Shannon, S.Hanna, D.Haughey, T.Leavey, G. (2019) Effects of a mental health intervention in athletes: Applying self-determination theory. , Frontiers in Psychology , 10 (pp. 1875-1888) doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01875

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Breslin, G., Shannon, S.Haughey, T.Sarju, N. (2019) Athlete and non-athlete student intentions to self-manage mental health: Applying the integrated behaviour change model to the state of mind programme. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 33(1) ,83-97

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(2019) Motivation Regulation among Black Women Triathletes. Sports, 7(9) ,208

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Brown, C. S.Cotter, J. J.Dodd-McCue, D.Huebschmann, A. G. (2019) Intrinsic Motivation among Black Women Triathletes. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 11(1) ,61-76

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Brown, C. S.Taylor, J. (2019) In Jim Taylor, Mental Muscles. Routledge Comprehensive Applied Sport Psychology, ,26

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Healy, L.Tincknell-Smith, A., Ntoumanis, N. (2018) In O. Braddick, Goal setting in sport and performance. , Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Psychology New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.152

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Ntoumanis, N.Quested, E., Reeve, J.Cheon, S. H. (2018) In B. Jackson, J. A. Dimmock, & J. Compton, Need supportive communication: Implications for motivation in sport, exercise, and physical activity. , Persuasion and communication in sport, exercise, and physical activity (pp. 155-169) Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

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Verner-Filion, J., Vallerand, R. J. (2018) A longitudinal examination of elite youth soccer players: The role of passion and basic need satisfaction in athletes’ optimal functioning. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 39 ,20-28

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Brown, C. S.Masters, K. S.Huebschmann, A. G. (2018) Identifying Motives of Midlife Black Triathlete Women Using Survey Transformation to Guide Qualitative Inquiry. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 33(1) ,1-20

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Li, C., Kawabata, M.Zhang, L. (2018) Validity and reliability of the Sport Motivation Scale-II for Chinese athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1 ,51-64

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Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2017) In R. M. Ryan, & E. L. Deci., Sport, physical activity, and physical education. (pp. 481-507) New York, NY: Guilford.

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Keshtidar, M., Behzadnia, B. (2017) Prediction of intention to continue sport in athlete students: A self-determination theory approach. PloS one, 12(2) ,e0171673

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Jowett, S.Adie, J. W.Bartholomew, K. J.Yang, S. X. (2017) Motivational processes in the coach-athlete relationship: A multi-cultural self-determination approach. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 32 ,143-152

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Viciana, J.Mayorga-Vega, D.Guijarro-Romero, S.Martínez-Baena, A. (2017) The Spanish adaptation of the Sport Motivation Scale-II in adolescent athletes. Psychological Reports, 120(5) ,943-965

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Matosic, D., Ntoumanis, N.Quested, E. (2016) In Raab, M., Wylleman, P., Seiler, R., Elbe, A.M., and Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (Eds.), Antecedents of need supportive and controlling interpersonal styles from a self-determination theory perspective: A review and implications for sport psychology research. , Sport and Exercise Psychology Research: From Theory to Practice (pp. 144-180) London, UK: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803634-1.00007-8

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Gaudreau, P.Morinville, A.Gareau, A.Verner-Filion, J. (2016) Autonomy support from parents and coaches: Synergistic or compensatory effects on sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes?. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 25 ,89-99

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Brown, C. S.Masters, K. S.Huebschmann, A. G. (2016) The Motives for Triathlon Participation from an Aging Black Woman. Gerontology & Geriatrics: Research, 2(2) ,1009

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Stenseng, F., Forest, J.Curran, T. (2015) Positive emotions in recreational sport activities: The role of passion and belongingness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16 ,1117-1129

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Cheon, S. H., Reeve, J.Lee, J.Lee, Y. (2015) Giving and receiving autonomy support in a high-stakes sport context: A !eld-based experiment during the 2012 London Paralympic Games. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19 ,59-69

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Wang, C. K. J., Liu, W. C.Nogawa, H.Sun, Y. (2015) The influence of Japanese sporting culture and motivation on sport participation and life aspirations. Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science, 4(2) ,113-123

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Boiché, J.Sarrazin, P., Chanal, J. (2015) A Longitudinal Study of Perceived Conflict and Instrumental Relationships Between Life Contexts Among Adolescents: The Role of Self-Determined Motivation. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 27(4) ,430-448

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Carpentier, J., Mageau, G. A. (2014) The role of coaches’ passion and athletes’ motivation in the prediction of change-oriented feedback quality and quantity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15 ,326-335

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White II, M. H., Sheldon, K. M. (2014) The contract year syndrome in the NBA and MLB: A classic undermining pattern. Motivation and Emotion, 38 ,196-205

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Pelletier, L. G.Rocchi, M. A., Vallerand, R. J., Deci, E. L. (2013) Validation of the revised sport motivation scale (SMS-II). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14 ,329-341

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Ntoumanis, N. (2012) A self-determination theory perspective on motivation in sport and physical education: Current trends and possible future research directions. In G.C. Roberts and D. C. Treasure, Motivation in sport and exercise: Volume 3. , Motivation in sport and exercise: Volume 3 (pp. 91-128) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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García-Calvo, T.Sánchez, P. A.Leo, F.M.Sánchez, D. (2011) Incidencia de la Teoría de Autodeterminación sobre la persistencia deportiva. Revista Internacional de Ciencias del Deporte, 25 ,266- 276

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Gillet, N.Vallerand, R. J.Amoura, S.Baldes, B. (2010) Influence of coaches’ autonomy support on athletes’ motivation and sport performance: A test of the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11 ,155-161

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Gillet, N.Vallerand, R. J.Paty, E.Gobance, L. (2010) French validation and adaptation of the Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Exercise Settings to the sport context. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8 ,117-128

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Balaguer, I.Castillo, I., Duda, J. L. (2009) Analisis las propiedades psicometricas de la version espanola del Cuestionario de Clima en el Deporte [Analysis of the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Sport Climate Questionnaire]. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 18 ,73-83

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Ntoumanis, N., Standage, M. (2009) Morality in sport: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21 ,365-380

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Gillet, N.Berjot, S.Paty, B. (2009) Profil motivationnel et performance sportive. Psychologie française, 54 ,173–190

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Camacho, A. S.Soto, C. A.Rodriguez, J. M. M.Canton, A. O. (2009) Motivational profiles in local sport centers. Anales de Psicologia, 25 ,160-168

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Murcia, J. A. M.Nougera, F. C.Coll, D. G. C.Gimeno, E. C. (2009) Dispositional flow in lifesaving sport: A self-determination theory approach. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 18 ,23-35

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Paquet, Y.Berjot, S., Gillet, N. (2009) Validation d’une échelle de locus de contrôle spécifique à la performance en sport individuel. Bulletin de Psychologie, 62 ,351-363

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Philippe, F. L., Vallerand, R. J.Andrianarisoa, J.Brunel, P. (2009) Passion in referees: Examining their affective and cognitive experiences in sport situations. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31 ,77-96

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Standage, M., Vallerand, R. J. (2008) Self-determined motivation in sport and exercise groups. In M. R. Beauchamp & M. A. Eys (Eds.), Group dynamics advances in sport and exercise psychology: Contemporary themes. (pp. 179-199) New York: Routledge.

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Balaguer, I.Castillo, I., Duda, J. L. (2008) Apoyo a la autonomía, satisfacción de las necesidades, motivación y bienestar en deportistas de competición: Un análisis de la Teoría de la Autodeterminación [Autonomy support, needs satisfaction, motivation and well-being in competitive athletes: A test of the Self-Determination Theory]. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 17 ,123-139

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Vallerand, R. J., Mageau, G. A.Elliot, A. J.Dumais, A. (2008) Passion and performance attainment in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9 ,373–392

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Vallerand, R. J., Ntoumanis, N., Philippe, F. L.Lavigne, G. (2008) On passion and sports fans: A look at football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26 ,1279-1293

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Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2007) In M. S. Hagger & N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Active human nature: Self-determination theory and the promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise, and health. (pp. 1-19) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Conroy, D. E.Coatsworth, J. D. (2007) In M. S. Hagger & N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Competence motivation in sport and exercise: The hierarchical model of achievement motivation and self-determination theory. (pp. 181-192) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Balaguer, I.Castillo, I., Duda, J. L. (2007) Propiedades psicometricas de la Escala de Motivacion Deportiva en deportistas espanoles [Psychometric properties of the Sports Motivation Scale in Spanish athletes]. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 24 ,197-207

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Wang, C.K.J., (2007) In M.S. Hagger & N.L.D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Understanding young people’s motivation toward exercise: An integration of sport ability beliefs, achievement goal theory, and self-determination theory. , Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport (pp. 193-208) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics..

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Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L. (2007) In M. S. Hagger & N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), The trans-contextual model of motivation. (pp. 53-70) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B.Lens, W. (2007) Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal promotion in sport and exercise: Understanding their differential impact on performance and persistence. In M. S. Hagger and N. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Self-Determination Theory in exercise and sport. (pp. 167-180) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Sarrazin, P.Boiché, J., Pelletier, L. G. (2007) In M. S. Hagger & N. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), A self-determination theory approach to dropout in athletes. (pp. 229-242) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Reinboth, M.Duda J. L. (2006) Perceived motivational climate, need satisfaction and indices of well-being in team sports: A longitudinal perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7 ,269–286

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Alonso, J. L.Lucas, J. M.Izqueirda, J. G. (2006) Propiedades psicométricas de la versión Española de la Escala de Motivación Deportiva. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 16 ,211-223

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Fernández, H.Vasconcelos-Raposo, J. (2005) Continuum de Auto-determinação: Validade Para a Sua Aplicação No Contexto Desportivo [Self-determination Continuum: Validity For Its Application In The Sport’s Context]. . Estudos de Psicologia, 10 ,385-395

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Vazou, S., Ntoumanis, N.Duda, J.L. (2005) Peer motivational climate in youth sport: A qualitative inquiry. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6 ,497-516

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Fernández, H.Vasconcelos-Raposo, J. (2005) Continuum de auto-determinação: Validade para a sua aplicação no contexto desportivo [Self-determination continuum: Validity for its application in the sport’s context]. Estudos de Psicologia, 10 ,385-395

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Sarrazin, P.Trouilloud, D.Tessier, D., Chanal, J. (2005) Attentes de motivation et comportements différenciés de l’enseignant d’Education Physique et Sportive à l’égard de ses élèves : une étude en contexte naturel d’enseignement. European Review of Applied Psychology (Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée), 55(2) ,111-120

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Frederick, C.Morris, T. (2004) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport and exercise. In T. Morris & J. Summers (Eds.), Sport psychology: Theory, applications and issues, 2nd ed.. (pp. 121-151) Milton, Australia: John Wiley & Sons Australia.

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Chatzisarantis, N. L., Hagger, M. S.Biddle, S. J. H.Smith, B. (2003) A meta-analysis of perceived locus on causality in exercise, sport, and physical education contexts. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25 ,284-306

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Gagné, M., Ryan, R. M.Bargmann, K. (2003) Autonomy support and need satisfaction in the motivation and well-being of gymnasts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15 ,372-390

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Mageau, G. A., Vallerand, R. J. (2003) The coach-athlete relationship: A motivational model. Journal of Sports Science, 21(11) ,883-904

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Frederick, C. (2002) In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Self-determination theory and participation motivation research in the sport and exercise domain. (pp. 277-294) Rochester, NY: University Of Rochester Press.

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Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J.Tuson, K. M. (1995) Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17 ,35-53

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Brière, N. M., Vallerand, R. J., Blais, M. R. (1995) Developpement et validation d’une mesure de motivation intrinseque et extrinseque et d’amotivation en contexte sportif: L’Echelle de Motivation dans les Sports (EMS). Journal International de Psychologie du Sport, 26 ,465-489

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Deci, E. L.Olson, B. C. (1989) Motivation and competition: Their role in sports. In J. H. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play. (pp. 83-110) Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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McAuley, E.Duncan, T.Tammen, V. V. (1989) Psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a competitive sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60(1) ,48-58

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Vallerand, R. J., Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (1987) Intrinsic motivation in sport. In K. Pandolf (Ed,), Exercise and sport science reviews, Vol. 15. (pp. 389-425) New York: Macmillan.

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